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Peer Reviewed

Title: Adherence to anti retroviral therapy (ART) during Muslim Ramadan fasting.
Author: Habib AG; Shepherd JC; Eng MK; Babashani M; Jumare J; Yakubu U; Gebi UI; Saad M; Ibrahim H; Blattner WA
Source: AIDS and Behavior. 2009 Feb;13(1):42-45.
Abstract: Annual fasting during the month of Ramadan is observed in Muslim countries, some of which have widespread HIV infection. We studied treatment adherence and customary practices among 142 fasting 'FT' and 101 nonfasting 'NFT' patients on anti-retroviral therapy (ART) in Nigeria. Adherence on ART among FT and NFT patients was similar during Ramadan, 96% and 98%, and ever since commencement of ART, 80% and 88%, respectively. FT patients altered their typical daily behaviors by advancing morning and delaying evening doses thereby prolonging dosing intervals, eating heavier meals pre-dawn and on breakfast at sunset (78%), and changing or reducing their sleeping and waking times (40%). This preliminary study suggests that adherence and drug taking frequency appear uncompromised in FT HIV infected patients on ARVs.
Language: English
Keywords:
ETHIOPIA | KENYA | NIGERIA | SOMALIA | SOUTH AFRICA | TANZANIA | UGANDA | RESEARCH REPORT | PERSONS LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS | ISLAM | HIV | ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY | USER COMPLIANCE | RELIGION | CULTURE | Developing Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Africa, Western | Africa, Southern | HIV Infections | Viral Diseases | Diseases | Sociocultural Factors | Behavior
Document Number: 330156

Title: Assessment of Kenyan sexual networks: Collecting evidence for interventions to reduce HIV / STI risk in Garissa, North Eastern Province, and Eastleigh, Nairobi.
Author: Macintyre K; Eymoy HA; Hassan I; Adriance D; Nouga A
Source: Nairobi, Kenya, Pathfinder International, AIDS, Population and Health Integrated Assistance North Eastern Province [APHIA], [2009]. 7 p. (USAID Associate Cooperative Agreement No. 623-A-00-07-00023-00)
Abstract: It is clear from the data gathered in this assessment that HIV prevention messages have reached Garissa, but more must be done to clarify and refine these messages and improve knowledge and behaviors regarding risky sex. Though this sample should not be viewed as representative of the NEP population as a whole, these data can be used by APHIA II NEP to create a targeted, evidence-based prevention strategy. APHIA II NEP plans to work with partners to improve knowledge, attitudes, and practices through a strategic behavior change campaign with the following objectives: targeting key populations, leveraging the endorsement and influence of religious leaders, projecting familiar social settings and "our face" in all communication materials, [and] intensifying school-based programs. (Excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
KENYA | SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | KAP SURVEYS | SEX WORKERS | SOCIAL NETWORKS | ETHNIC GROUPS | INFLUENTIALS | ISLAM | NOMADS | FOREIGN AID | TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE | PERCEPTION | RISK ASSESSMENT | HIV TRANSMISSION | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Surveys | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Sex Behavior | Behavior | Friends and Relatives | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Cultural Background | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Knowledge Sources | Communication | Religion | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Financial Activities | Economic Factors | Programs | Organization and Administration | Psychological Factors | Evaluation | HIV Infections | Viral Diseases | Diseases
Document Number: 331344

Title: Somalia is again polio-free.
Author: World Health Organization [WHO]
Source: Weekly Epidemiological Record. 2008 Apr 4;83(14):117-118.
Abstract: The Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) announced on 25 March that Somalia is again free of poliovirus, hailing an historic achievement in global public health. Somalia has not reported a case since 25 March 2007. Against a backdrop of widespread conflict, large population movements and a dearth of functioning government infrastructure, transmission of poliovirus in the country has been successfully stopped. This landmark victory is a result of the efforts of greater than 10 000 Somali volunteers and health workers who repeatedly vaccinated greater than 1.8 million children aged less than 5 years by visiting every household in every settlement multiple times, across a country ranked one of the most dangerous places on earth. The use of innovative approaches tailored to conflict areas was pivotal in stopping polio in the country. These included increased community involvement and the effective use of monovalent vaccines to immunize children in insecure areas with several doses within a shortperiod of time. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | SUMMARY REPORT | POLIO | CAMPAIGNS | IMMUNIZATION | PREVENTION AND CONTROL | PROGRAM EFFECTIVENESS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Viral Diseases | Diseases | Communication Programs | Communication | Primary Health Care | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Health | Program Evaluation | Programs | Organization and Administration
Document Number: 325931

Peer Reviewed

Title: Religious beliefs prevailing among Somali men living in Finland regarding the use of the condom by men and that of other forms of contraception by women.
Author: Degni F; Mazengo C; Vaskilampi T; Essen B
Source: European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care. 2008 Sep;13(3):298-303.
Abstract: The objective of this study was to explore religious beliefs of Somali men residing in Finland that may influence their use of condoms and their perceptions of contraceptive use by women of their community. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to study 98 refugee Somali married men aged 30-65 years. Participants filled in self-administered questionnaires (in English or in Somali) but were also interviewed. The interviews were semi-structured, featuring thematically clustered open-ended questions; they were conducted in Somali or in English. Participants had arrived in Finland between 1990-1998. They had from 2-12 children. For religious reasons, 63% of the men avoided using condoms and were opposed to women's contraceptive use. The remaining 37% were not deterred by religious beliefs from using condoms and from approving women's contraceptive practices. In conclusion, for religious reasons, most Somali men assessed avoided using condoms and disapproved of the use of contraception by women.
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | FINLAND | RESEARCH REPORT | MEN | RELIGION | BELIEFS | CONTRACEPTIVE USAGE | CONDOM USE | FEMALE CONTRACEPTION | Developing Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Europe, Northern | Europe | Developed Countries | Demographic Factors | Population | Sociocultural Factors | Culture | Contraception | Family Planning | Risk Reduction Behavior | Behavior
Document Number: 329695

Title: Risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in Somalia: National Tuberculin Survey 2006.
Author: Munim A; Rajab Y; Barker A; Daniel M; Williams B
Source: Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 2008 May-Jun;14(3):518-530.
Abstract: To estimate the annual risk of tuberculosis (TB) infection (ARTI) in Somalia a tuberculin survey was conducted in February/March 2006. Stratified cluster sampling was carried out within the 18 regions and 101 randomly selected primary schools. Tuberculin testing was done in 10 680 grade 1 schoolchildren. Transverse tuberculin reaction size was measured 72 hours later. The number of children with a satisfactory test read was 10 364. The overall BCG coverage was 54%. Based on frequency distribution of tuberculin reaction sizes, the ARTI in Somalia was estimated at 2.2% (confidence interval: 1.5%-3.2%). There was an annual decline of 2.6% comparing with a previous study in 1956. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | SURVEYS | CHILD | TUBERCULOSIS | RISK FACTORS | TESTING | PRIMARY SCHOOLS | INFECTIONS | PREVALENCE | TRANSMISSION | AGE FACTORS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Youth | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Diseases | Biology | Measurement | Schools | Education
Document Number: 327171

Peer Reviewed

Title: Spatial prediction of Plasmodium falciparum prevalence in Somalia.
Author: Noor AM; Clements AC; Gething PW; Moloney G; Borle M
Source: Malaria Journal. 2008;7(159)
Abstract: Background: Maps of malaria distribution are vital for optimal allocation of resources for anti-malarial activities. There is a lack of reliable contemporary malaria maps in endemic countries in sub-Saharan Africa. This problem is particularly acute in low malaria transmission countries such as those located in the horn of Africa. Methods: Data from a national malaria cluster sample survey in 2005 and routine cluster surveys in 2007 were assembled for Somalia. Rapid diagnostic tests were used to examine the presence of Plasmodium falciparum parasites in finger-prick blood samples obtained from individuals across all age-groups. Bayesian geostatistical models, with environmental and survey covariates, were used to predict continuous maps of malaria prevalence across Somalia and to define the uncertainty associated with the predictions. Results: For analyses the country was divided into north and south. In the north, the month of survey, distance to water, precipitation and temperature had no significant association with P. falciparum prevalence when spatial correlation was taken into account. In contrast, all the covariates, except distance to water, were significantly associated with parasite prevalence in the south. The inclusion of covariates improved model fit for the south but not for the north. Model precision was highest in the south. The majority of the country had a predicted prevalence of < 5%; areas with > or = 5% prevalence were predominantly in the south. Conclusions: The maps showed that malaria transmission in Somalia varied from hypo- to meso-endemic. However, even after including the selected covariates in the model, there still remained a considerable amount of unexplained spatial variation in parasite prevalence, indicating effects of other factors not captured in the study. Nonetheless the maps presented here provide the best contemporary information on malaria prevalence in Somalia.
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | EPIDEMIOLOGY | TESTING | MALARIA | GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS | TRANSMISSION | PARASITES | POPULATION DISTRIBUTION | Developing Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Public Health | Health | Measurement | Research Methodology | Parasitic Diseases | Diseases | Population | Infections | Biology
Document Number: 329500

Peer Reviewed

Title: The use of mosquito nets and the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection in rural South Central Somalia.
Author: Noor AM; Moloney G; Borle M; Fegan GW; Shewchuk T
Source: PLoS One. 2008 May;3(5):e2081.
Abstract: There have been resurgent efforts in Africa to estimate the public health impact of malaria control interventions such as insecticide treated nets (ITNs) following substantial investments in scaling-up coverage in the last five years. Little is known, however, on the effectiveness of ITN in areas of Africa that support low transmission. This hinders the accurate estimation of impact of ITN use on disease burden and its cost-effectiveness in low transmission settings. Using a stratified two-stage cluster sample design, four cross-sectional studies were undertaken between March-June 2007 across three livelihood groups in an area of low intensity malaria transmission in South Central Somalia. Information on bed net use; age; and sex of all participants were recorded. A finger prick blood sample was taken from participants to examine for parasitaemia. Mantel-Haenzel methods were used to measure the effect of net use on parasitaemia adjusting for livelihood; age; and sex. A total of 10,587 individuals of all ages were seen of which 10,359 provided full information. Overall net use and parasite prevalence were 12.4% and 15.7% respectively. Age-specific protective effectiveness (PE) of bed net ranged from 39% among ,5 years to 72% among 5-14 years old. Overall PE of bed nets was 54% (95% confidence interval 44%-63%) after adjusting for livelihood; sex; and age. Bed nets confer high protection against parasite infection in South Central Somalia. In such areas where baseline transmission is low, however, the absolute reductions in parasitaemia due to wide-scale net use will be relatively small raising questions on the cost-effectiveness of covering millions of people living in such settings in Africa with nets. Further understanding of the progress of disease upon infection against the cost of averting its consequent burden in low transmission areas of Africa is therefore required. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | CROSS SECTIONAL ANALYSIS | PREVALENCE | RURAL AREAS | INFECTIONS | PARASITES | MALARIA | TRANSMISSION | BED NETS | INTERVENTIONS | COST EFFECTIVENESS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Measurement | Geographic Factors | Population | Diseases | Biology | Parasitic Diseases | Parasite Control | Public Health | Health | Programs | Organization and Administration | Evaluation Indexes | Quantitative Evaluation | Evaluation
Document Number: 326666

Title: Somalia. Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2006. Monitoring the situation of children and women.
Author: UNICEF; League of Arab States
Source: [Mogadishu], Somalia, UNICEF, [2007]. 224 p. (Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women)
Abstract: This report is based on the Somali Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, conducted in 2005 by UNICEF as part of the global UNICEF MICS programme, with technical assistance from the PAPFAM project of the League of Arab States. The survey was conducted with the support and endorsement of: ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Transitional Federal Government, Somalia; ministry of National Planning and Coordination, Hargeisa, Somaliland; ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Garowe, Puntland The survey provides valuable information on the situation of children and women in Somalia and was based, in large part, on the need to monitor progress towards goals and targets emanating from recent international agreements: the Millennium Declaration, adopted by all 191 United Nations Member States in September 2000, and the Plan of Action of A World Fit For Children, adopted by 189 Member States at the United Nations Special Session on Children in May 2002. Both of these commitments build upon promises made by the international community at the 1990 World Summit for Children. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | EVALUATION REPORT | SURVEYS | CHILD MORTALITY | NUTRITION | CHILD HEALTH | REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH | ENVIRONMENT | SOCIAL PROTECTION | EDUCATION | CHILD DEVELOPMENT | HIV INFECTIONS | AIDS | SEX BEHAVIOR | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Evaluation | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Mortality | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Population | Health | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Biology | Viral Diseases | Diseases | Behavior
Document Number: 326346

10.

Title: A religious oriented approach to addressing FGM / C among the Somali community of Wajir, Kenya.
Author: Abdi MS
Source: Washington, D.C., Population Council, Frontiers in Reproductive Health, 2007. 25 p. (USAID Cooperative Agreement No. HRN-A-00-98-00012-00)
Abstract: The purpose of this approach is to educate the community on the harms of FGM/C, both religiously and medically, so that they question the rationale for its continuation. The first step in the approach is to de-link Islam and FGM/C. It is important for the community to understand the Shariah implications of this practice and be made aware of the fact that Islamic Shariah upholds human rights and dignity and that FGM/C violates these rights. As long as this practice is wrongly justified as Islamic, nothing else will make sense to the community, not even the many protocols and legislations that prohibit and outlaw the practice. These are man-made laws according to them and hence they cannot bind them. But are there any God-made laws that actually support this practice? We can answer this question by weighing the practice against Islamic teachings and prove that there is no sunnah 'cut' in Islam. Knowledge that the practice is traditional and is in conflict with Islamic principles is a sure convincingway that can help in questioning the practice. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
KENYA | SOMALIA | CRITIQUE | RECOMMENDATIONS | MINORITY GROUPS | COMMUNITY | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | ADOLESCENTS, FEMALE | ISLAM | FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING | USAID | WOMEN'S RIGHTS | COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION | PREVENTION AND CONTROL | Developing Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Residence Characteristics | Population Distribution | Geographic Factors | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Adolescents | Youth | Age Factors | Religion | Sociocultural Factors | Harmful Traditional Practices | Traditional Health Practices | Culture | Government Agencies | Organizations | Political Factors | Human Rights | Organization and Administration | Diseases
Document Number: 318978

11.

Peer Reviewed

Title: Disaster mitigation and furthering women's rights: learning from the Tsunami.
Author: Akerkar S
Source: Gender Technology and Development. 2007;11(3):357-388.
Abstract: Vulnerability has long been accepted as an important factor in post-disaster recovery which affects the ability of the survivors to recover from multi-dimensional impacts. This comparative and cross-cultural study of the effects of tsunami on women in four countries looks more closely into the factors and processes that have led to the exclusion of certain groups of women from relief and recovery assistance. These include female heads of households, widows, the elderly and those belonging to marginalized groups such as migrants and stateless communities. Examining the current gender-neutral framing of social protection systems in the disaster areas and their operations, I show that vulnerability is not only an outcome of localized and individual dimensions like age, gender and marital status but that they have deeper relations with national and global powers who perpetuate institutionalized discrimination through such systems, and how they are unable to give these groups of women the much needed protection and assistance to live with dignity. A case is made for the recognition of compounded discrimination based on the fact that their vulnerable positions prior to the disaster have indeed led to their exclusion from relief and recovery activities, leaving them poorer and worst-off. Further, to redress this trend I propose a women's human rights strategy in disaster management which adopts as its core a combination of the recognition of vulnerability derived from identities with corresponding gender-based redistributive principles to be integrated in policies, practices and social protection systems. As a discursive construct, the women's human rights approach in disasters would not only reduce the vulnerability of disaster survivors but also create new gender-just post-disaster societies. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
INDIA | SRI LANKA | INDONESIA | THAILAND | SOMALIA | MALDIVES | RESEARCH REPORT | COMPARATIVE STUDIES | WOMEN | NATURAL DISASTERS | HUMAN RIGHTS | SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION | PARTICIPATION | NATURAL RESOURCES | IMPACT | PROGRAM ACCESSIBILITY | Asia, Southern | Asia | Developing Countries | Asia, Southeastern | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Studies | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Population | Environment | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Social Problems | Social Behavior | Behavior | Communication | Program Evaluation | Programs | Organization and Administration
Document Number: 329310

12.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Contraceptive failure.
Author: Cobey FC; Takayama H
Source: New England Journal of Medicine. 2007 Jan 25;356(4):397.
Abstract: A 60-year-old Somalian woman presented to the emergency department with pain in the upper abdomen. Her medical history was notable for the placement of an intrauterine device (IUD) while she was living in Somalia. After the placement of the IUD, she continued to have children. Radiography of the abdomen showed an IUD in the left upper quadrant. Further evaluation revealed that she had cholecystitis. The IUD was easily removed during the laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The incidence of uterine perforation and migration of IUDs is approximately 1 to 2 cases per 1000 insertions. During puerperium, when the uterus is small and thin, there is an increased risk of perforation. Perforation is often silent, and the IUD is detected only after injury to other organs or incidentally by imaging. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | SUMMARY REPORT | WOMEN | CONTRACEPTION FAILURE | IUD MIGRATION | PAIN | ABDOMINAL CRAMPS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Demographic Factors | Population | Contraceptive Usage | Contraception | Family Planning | IUD | Contraceptive Methods | Signs and Symptoms | Diseases
Document Number: 312034

13.

Title: Negotiating with men to help women: The success of Somali women activists.
Author: Dini S
Source: Critical Half. 2007 Winter;5(1):33-37.
Abstract: In 1991, Somalia's government collapsed and the nation became engulfed in a deadly civil war that continues to cause enormous suffering, destruction, and displacement today. The subsequent anarchy has made it impossible for Somalis to form lasting state institutions that provide essential services such as healthcare, employment, and education to the population. In response, some Somali women have emerged as grassroots activists seeking to provide services to those who bear the brunt of the war, particularly vulnerable women. However, these activists have encountered numerous obstacles from male leaders who are suspicious of their women-specific activities. This paper will briefly examine the status of women within Somalia and the rise in Somali women's activism. Then, drawing upon interviews conducted by the author in Puntland and Somaliland in 2005 and 2006, it will discuss how women activists have come to understand the importance of working with male leaders to deliver services to women in need, and the methods that they have used to overcome men's suspicions and increase their support for anti-female genital mutilation (FGM) and literacy initiatives designed to assist and empower women. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | EVALUATION | MEN | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | GENDER RELATIONS | MALE ROLE | WAR | WOMEN'S STATUS | FEMINISM | WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT | LEADERSHIP | INTERVIEWS | ATTITUDES | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Demographic Factors | Population | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Gender Issues | Sociocultural Factors | Social Behavior | Behavior | Political Factors | Socioeconomic Factors | Organization and Administration | Data Collection | Research Methodology | Psychological Factors
Document Number: 316418

14.

Title: Gender dynamics and HIV / AIDS: Engaging Ugandan men in disease prevention.
Author: Simoni A
Source: Critical Half. 2007 Winter;5(1):27-31.
Abstract: In the context of the devastating impact of HIV/ AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa, Uganda's approach to the epidemic has been touted as exemplary. The country's ABC (Abstain, Be faithful, Condom use) strategy for confronting risky sexual behavior is cited as key to the country's dramatic decline in HIV prevalence. Yet, in spite of this perceived success, increasing evidence indicates that the gender-neutral ABC approach, combined with only a limited number of gender-sensitive interventions, fails to adequately address women's needs, men's realities, and the relation between the two, and therefore overlooks the fundamental factors driving the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Despite Uganda's shortcomings in addressing the interaction between gender inequalities and HIV/AIDS at the national level, several smaller local initiatives offer the potential for transformative change. With particular focus on northern Uganda, where social, economic, and physical conditions created by 20 years of violent conflict exacerbate theprevalence of the disease,2 this paper outlines the current state of HIV/AIDS and shortcomings in prevention approaches, and highlights two initiatives that attempt to transform gender relations and thus reduce both women's and men's vulnerability to infection. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | CRITIQUE | KAP SURVEYS | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | MEN | MALE ROLE | FEMALE ROLE | ADVOCACY | WOMEN'S STATUS | WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT | LEADERSHIP | FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING | LITERACY PROGRAMS | Developing Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Surveys | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Demographic Factors | Population | Social Behavior | Behavior | Communication | Socioeconomic Factors | Organization and Administration | Harmful Traditional Practices | Traditional Health Practices | Culture | Sociocultural Factors | Education
Document Number: 316417

15.

Peer Reviewed

Title: Health and humanitarian situation worsens in Somalia.
Author: Wakabi W
Source: Lancet. 2007 Oct 6;370(9594):1201-1202.
Abstract: Somalia, the conflict-battered African state, which has been without a central administration since 1991, continues to slide into a deeper humanitarian crisis. Access to medical services is scarce and more people are being killed or displaced by fighting. Wairagala Wakabi reports. Fighting in Somalia is making it increasingly hard for humanitarian agencies to reach affected people, especially since the latest violent fl are-up in August. And, the murder on Sept 11 of a WHO employee by militiamen, could further complicate delivery of medical services to very desperate populations. WHO reported that Farah Warsame Diriye, a local staff member who had worked in their poliomyelitis programme since 1998, was shot dead at Galgadud, Central Somalia, during a national immunisation campaign. Warsame's killing was "yet another reminder of the continuous danger in which health workers are carrying out their day-to-day activities inside Somalia", WHO said, adding that the deteriorating security situation was impeding access to necessary health care for the vulnerable population. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | CRITIQUE | PROGRESS REPORT | EVALUATION | POLICYMAKERS | HEALTH PERSONNEL | GOVERNMENT | INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS | WAR | FOREIGN AID | INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION | PROGRAM ACCESSIBILITY | DELIVERY OF HEALTH CARE | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Administrative Personnel | Organization and Administration | Health | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Settlement and Resettlement | Migration | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Population | Financial Activities | Economic Factors | Program Evaluation | Programs
Document Number: 321852

16.

Title: The role of the media in disseminating HIV and AIDS information in Somaliland.
Author: Wangulu E
Source: Exchange on HIV / AIDS, Sexuality and Gender. 2007;(2):12-13.
Abstract: Somaliland is situated in the eastern Horn of Africa. It was part of the wider Somalia until it declared itself an independent state after the collapse of the autocratic rule of Mohammed Siad Barre in 1991. Statistical evidence on the extent and spread of HIV in Somaliland is seriously lacking, but data from the blood banks, testing of suspected cases of people living with HIV (PLWH) and information from the few studies conducted in Somaliland, suggest an increase in infection rates. A study by WHO and the Ministry of Health showed HIV prevalences of 1.4% among antenatal care patients, 3.5% among sexually transmitted infections (STI) patients and 5.6% among tuberculosis patients in Somaliland. Also, the prevalence of HIV in neighbouring countries and where many Somali refugees live is high. For example, Ethiopia's HIV prevalence rate stands at 6.7% while Djibouti's is 3.5%. Notwithstanding this evidence, there is little general awareness about either the causes of HIV infection or the practices, both medical and social, which can contribute to its prevention or spread. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | PROGRESS REPORT | EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS | PERSONS LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS | JOURNALISTS | MASS MEDIA | INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION | HIV PREVENTION | HIV INFECTIONS | PREVALENCE | TABOO | CAPACITY BUILDING | WORKSHOPS | ADVOCACY | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Viral Diseases | Diseases | Communications Personnel | Communication | Measurement | Culture | Sociocultural Factors | Program Sustainability | Programs | Organization and Administration | Education
Document Number: 323938

17.

18.

Title: Living transnationally: Somali diasporic women in Cairo.
Author: Al-Sharmani M
Source: International Migration. 2006;44(1):55-77.
Abstract: Since the Somali Civil War in 1991, there have been a large number of Somalis living in the Middle East, Europe, North America, and Australia. An increasing number of these Somalis are living in transnational households where family members live and sometimes move back and forth in different nation-states, yet these families maintain strong ties, share resources, and make decisions collectively about the well-being of different members. In this paper, I argue that women play central roles in establishing and managing these transnational households. I examine these roles and their significance through an analysis of the activities and experiences of two groups of Somali women in Cairo within the domains of their transnational families and communities. These groups of women are: (1) refugees who have been granted or are seeking asylum from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) office in Egypt, and (2) naturalized citizens of Western countries who have relocated to Egypt, and whomI will refer to as �migr�s. I argue that many of these women become active members of transnational households and communities to (1) resist legal, economic, and/or cultural "othering" of host societies, and (2) renegotiate past and present identity discourses that marginalize these individuals on multiple levels that are determined by clan affiliations, socio-economic conditions, and gender inequalities. By using complex transnational strategies, these women are engaging in new forms of activism to establish lives with more security, better future opportunities, and more dignity for their families and themselves. Yet their transnational family and community lives have benefits and challenges, which the women experience differently because of their varied diasporic histories and their uneven access to legal and social capital. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | EGYPT | RESEARCH REPORT | QUALITATIVE RESEARCH | WOMEN | EMIGRANTS | REFUGEES | FEMALE ROLE | INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION | CULTURAL BACKGROUND | SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT | FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD | GENDER ISSUES | Developing Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Africa, Northern | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Population | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Social Behavior | Behavior | Population Characteristics | Sociocultural Factors
Document Number: 314581

19.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Attitudes towards and perceptions about contraceptive use among married refugee women of Somali descent living in Finland.
Author: Degni F; Koivusilta L; Ojanlatva A
Source: European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care. 2006 Sep;11(3):190-196.
Abstract: The objectives were to assess attitudes towards and perceptions about contraceptive use among married refugee women of Somali descent living in Finland. A sample of 100 married refugee women of Somali descent (18--50 years of age) were invited to participate in a study on contraceptive use in Finland (30 women refused). Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect the data. Questionnaire of the first data set was written in the Somali language. Interviews were conducted in the Somali language. The attitudes and opinions of these women towards contraceptive use (73% did not use contraceptives, 27% did use them) were connected with religious beliefs and issues involving marital relations. Religious or gender issues did not seem to influence those who used contraception. The findings indicated that the majority of the married refugee women of Somali descent living in Finland did not use contraception. The process of starting the use of contraception was possible because of an access to good reproductive health care and family planning services, changes in life situations, and adaptations to Finnish social and cultural norms. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
FINLAND | SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | SURVEYS | WOMEN | REFUGEES | CURRENTLY MARRIED | CONTRACEPTIVE USAGE | ATTITUDES | PERCEPTION | RELIGIOUS ASPECTS | CULTURE | Europe, Northern | Europe | Developed Countries | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Population | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Marital Status | Nuptiality | Contraception | Family Planning | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Religion | Sociocultural Factors
Document Number: 307165

20.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Urinary calculus associated with female genital cutting.
Author: Nour NM
Source: Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2006 Feb;107(2 Pt 2):521-523.
Abstract: Female genital cutting is a cultural practice seen in parts of Africa and Asia. Women who have undergone type III female genital cutting (excising the external genitalia and suturing the remnant tissue to cover the urethra and part of the introitus) can suffer various long-term complications. Defibulation, a procedure that opens the overlying scar can alleviate or resolve symptoms. A 32-year-old Somali woman presenting with type III female genital cutting complained of infertility, dyspareunia, dysmenorrhea, and exquisite pain upon sitting. She underwent a defibulation procedure to create neolabia majora. Intraoperatively, a 0.8 cm urinary calculus was found beneath the urethra. Postoperatively, all of her symptoms resolved. Infibulated scars create a favorable environment for stagnant urine to crystallize and become a urinary calculus. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | MASSACHUSETTS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA | RESEARCH REPORT | CASE STUDIES | WOMEN | FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING | COMPLICATIONS | UROGENITAL EFFECTS | UROGENITAL SURGERY | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | North America | Americas | Developed Countries | Studies | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Population | Harmful Traditional Practices | Traditional Health Practices | Culture | Sociocultural Factors | Diseases | Urogenital System | Physiology | Biology | Surgery | Treatment | Medical Procedures | Medicine | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Health
Document Number: 296800

21.
Title: Somali and Oromo refugee women: trauma and associated factors.
Author: Robertson CL; Halcon L; Savik K; Johnson D; Spring M
Source: Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2006 Dec;56(6):577-587.
Abstract: This paper reports a study identifying the demographic characteristics, self-reported trauma and torture prevalence, and association of trauma experience and health and social problems among Somali and Oromo women refugees. Nearly all refugees have experienced losses, and many have suffered multiple traumatic experiences, including torture. Their vulnerability to isolation is exacerbated by poverty, grief, and lack of education, literacy, and skills in the language of the receiving country. Using data from a cross-sectional population-based survey, conducted from July 1999 to September 2001, with 1134 Somali and Oromo refugees living in the United States of America, a sub-sample of female participants with clearly identified parenting status (n = 458) were analysed. Measures included demographics, history of trauma and torture, scales for physical, psychological, and social problems, and a post-traumatic stress symptom checklist. Results indicated high overall trauma and torture exposure, and associated physical, social and psychological problems. Women with large families reported statistically significantly higher counts of reported trauma (mean 30, P < 0.001) and torture (mean 3, P < 0.001), and more associated problems (P < 0.001) than the other two groups. Women who reported higher levels of trauma and torture were also older (P < 0.001), had more family responsibilities, had less formal education (P < 0.001) and were less likely to speak English (P < 0.001). These findings suggest a need for nurses, and especially public health nurses who work with refugee and immigrant populations in the community, to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the range of refugee women's experiences and the continuum of needs post-migration, particularly among older women with large family responsibilities. Nurses, with their holistic framework, are ideally suited to partner with refugee women to expand their health agenda beyond the biomedical model to promote healing and reconnection with families and communities. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA | RESEARCH REPORT | DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEYS | EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS | CROSS SECTIONAL ANALYSIS | REFUGEES | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | INDIGENOUS POPULATION | IMMIGRANTS | STRESS | VIOLENCE | PREVALENCE | SOCIAL PROBLEMS | PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | North America | Americas | Developed Countries | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Population | Research Methodology | Migrants | Migration | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Population Characteristics | Behavior | Measurement | Sociocultural Factors
Document Number: 309338

22.

Title: Female genital cutting among the Somali of Kenya and management of its complications.
Author: Jaldesa GW; Askew I; Njue C; Wanjiru M
Source: [New York, New York], Population Council, 2005 Feb. [34] p. (USAID Cooperative Agreement No. HRN-A-00-98-00012-00USAID Development Experience Clearinghouse DocID / Order No: PN-ADC-202)
Abstract: The Somali community living in Kenya (and in their native Somalia) has practised the severest form of female genital cutting (FGC), infibulation, for centuries. To understand the context within which the practice takes place, and how its complications are managed, the Population Council�s Frontiers in Reproductive Health Program (FRONTIERS) undertook a diagnostic study in North Eastern Province (Wajir and Mandera districts) and in the Eastleigh area of Nairobi. The study collected data through: in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with community and religious leaders, and recently married and unmarried men and women; interviews with health providers, and an assessment of their clinics� readiness to offer safe motherhood and FGC-related services; and interviews with antenatal clients who had been cut. The study confirmed that FGC is a deeply rooted and widely supported cultural practice. Several closely related reasons are used to sustain the practice: religious obligation, family honour, and virginity as a prerequisite for marriage; an aesthetic preference for infibulated genitalia was also mentioned. However, FGC plays no role as a rite of passage. Underlying these reasons are the use of infibulation to enforce the cultural value of sexual purity in females. A relevant lesson learned from FGC abandonment strategies elsewhere is the importance of working with intermarrying groups, as FGC is a critical prerequisite for marriage. If consensus can be generated that marrying uncut women is acceptable within the social group and this decision is then publicised through a formal declaration, then a �social convention shift� can happen. Thus, when developing a strategy for working with community members, it is important to determine marriage patterns and to organize activities accordingly. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | KENYA | RESEARCH REPORT | FOCUS GROUPS | WOMEN | TRADITIONAL HEALTH PRACTICES | FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING | RELIGIOUS ASPECTS | CULTURE | PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS | PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS | REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Data Collection | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Population | Harmful Traditional Practices | Religion | Diseases | Behavior | Human Rights
Document Number: 287655

23.

Title: Competence of maternal and child health clinic workers in detecting malnutrition in Somalia.
Author: Qayad MG
Source: African Health Sciences. 2005 Dec;5(4):319-321.
Abstract: The MCH clinic workers in Somalia receive formal and in-service training to perform their professional duties. Their competence in the field was never examined. This study assessed their competencies in detecting malnourished children 5 years and below in Beledweyne. The objective was to assess the competence of MCH clinic workers in detecting malnourished children. Design: Cross-sectional study. The study was conducted in 1989. We obtained data on children five years and below from the MCH clinic in Beledweyne, Somalia. We analyzed two months data. We used CASP program to calculate the Weight-for-Age index (WFA). The nutritional status determined by the MCH clinic workers and the WFA index were used to estimate the positive and negative predicted values of the MCH clinic workers' competence in detecting malnourished children. We studied 487 children 5 years old and below. The health workers determined that 13.5% were malnourished. The positive and negative predicted values of the MCH clinic workers' nutritional measure were 76% and 92% respectively. The MCH clinic workers showed deficiency in their competence to detect malnourished children. They misclassified 10% of the children, which was worse among the malnourished, due to incorrect plotting of the child's current weight on the growth chart. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | CROSS SECTIONAL ANALYSIS | HEALTH PERSONNEL | MOTHERS | CHILDREN | MALNUTRITION | EXAMINATIONS AND DIAGNOSES | HEALTH SERVICES EVALUATION | CLINICS | CHILD HEALTH | WOMEN'S HEALTH | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Delivery of Health Care | Health | Parents | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Youth | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Nutrition Disorders | Diseases | Medical Procedures | Medicine | Health Services | Program Evaluation | Programs | Organization and Administration | Health Facilities
Document Number: 301571

25.
Title: Somali refugee women speak out about their needs for care during pregnancy and delivery.
Author: Herrel N; Olevitch L; DuBois DK; Terry P; Thorp D
Source: Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health. 2004 Jul-Aug;49(4):345-349.
Abstract: More than half of all Somali refugees in the United States live in Minnesota. To obtain information to develop culturally sensitive health education materials, we conducted two focus groups with 14 Somali women who had each given birth to one child in Minnesota. Overall, women thought that their childbirth experience was positive. They also reported racial stereotyping, apprehension of cesarean births, and concern about the competence of medical interpreters. Women wanted more information about events in the delivery room, pain medications, prenatal visits, interpreters, and roles of hospital staff. The most desirable educational formats were a videotape, audiotapes, printed materials, and birth center tours. To increase their attendance at prenatal appointments, participants said they needed reminder telephone calls, transportation, and childcare. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA | MINNESOTA | RESEARCH REPORT | FOCUS GROUPS | REFUGEES | PREGNANT WOMEN | CHILDBIRTH | CULTURAL BACKGROUND | ANTENATAL CARE | HEALTH EDUCATION | CESAREAN SECTION | UTILIZATION OF HEALTH CARE | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Developed Countries | North America | Americas | Data Collection | Research Methodology | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Population | Population Characteristics | Pregnancy Outcomes | Pregnancy | Reproduction | Maternal Health Services | Maternal-Child Health Services | Primary Health Care | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Health | Education | Obstetrical Surgery | Surgery | Treatment
Document Number: 274070

26.
Title: Reproductive health care for Somali refugees in Yemen.
Author: Jaffer FH; Guy S; Niewczasinski J
Source: Forced Migration Review. 2004 Jan;(19):33-34.
Abstract: Reproductive health (RH) indicators in Yemen are amongst the worst in the Arab World. Infant mortality rate stands at 73.85 per 1,000 live births and the maternal mortality ratio is of 850 per 100,000 live births. Only one in five Yemeni women uses any method of contraception. Health services are limited and of inconsistent quality. Although refugees are entitled to use health and other services, the reality is that access to primary health care is insufficient both for Yemenis and the 81,700 registered and the large number of unregistered refugees � most of them Somali, Ethiopians and Eritreans. Marie Stopes International Yemen (MSIY) opened its first RH and family planning centre in Sana�a in 1998. Further centres have been opened in Seiyun, Aden and Ta�iz. MSIY provides comprehensive mother and child health and RH care services to lowincome women and their families. These include the provision of temporary methods of family planning (FP), diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), antenatal and postnatal care, obstetrics, paediatrics, health education, and laboratory and pharmacy services. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | YEMEN | PROGRESS REPORT | EVALUATION | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | REFUGEES | NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS | REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH | PROGRAM ACCESSIBILITY | ANTENATAL CARE | SEX EDUCATION | HEALTH EDUCATION | WAR | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Middle East | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Population | Organizations | Health | Program Evaluation | Programs | Organization and Administration | Maternal Health Services | Maternal-Child Health Services | Primary Health Care | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Education | Political Factors
Document Number: 273943

27.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Somali women and well-being: social networks and social capital among immigrant women in Australia.
Author: McMichael C; Manderson L
Source: Human Organization. 2004 Spring;63(1):88-99.
Abstract: Somalis have been one of the largest groups to migrate to Australia under its provisions for refugee and humanitarian resettlement. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in Melbourne in 2000-2001, we explore how the loss of social relationships as a result of civil war and displacement contribute to women's distress and sadness. To explore the erosion of social relationships among Somalis in Australia, and how this affects everyday life and women's well-being, we draw on the concepts of social capital and social networks. We suggest that social networks among Somalis in Melbourne are problematic, restricting women's capacity to use and create social capital to settle in Australia. However, the concept of social capital only partially accounts for women's continued sense of displacement. Well-being is not just about contemporary social structures and activities, it is also affected by how women use the past to give meaning to the present. We argue that women's understandings of contemporary social relations are given comparative meaning through their juxtaposition with memories of social worlds in Somalia. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
AUSTRALIA | SOMALIA | RESEARCH REPORT | INTERVIEWS | WOMEN | IMMIGRANTS | REFUGEES | SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT | SOCIAL NETWORKS | STRESS | SADNESS | WAR | VIOLENCE | Developed Countries | Oceania | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Data Collection | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Population | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Social Behavior | Behavior | Friends and Relatives | Family and Household | Psychological Factors | Emotions | Political Factors
Document Number: 183195

28.

Title: Female genital mutilation / cutting in Somalia.
Author: Mohamud AA; McAntony A
Source: Washington, D.C., World Bank, 2004 Nov. 132 p.
Abstract: It is estimated that 98 percent of Somali women and girls have undergone some form of genital mutilation. About 90 percent have been subjected to the most drastic form. Since the 1991 collapse of its central government, Somalia has lacked established institutions, infrastructure, human resources and a secure environment suitable for development programs. Despite a harsh and uncertain environment, a vibrant civil society has been born in Somalia. Hundreds of NGOs, including women and youth groups, are actively involved in assisting victims of war, displaced persons, ethnic minorities, orphans, returned refugees, drought-stricken nomads and rural communities. These civil society groups receive significant humanitarian and development assistance from U.N. agencies and 40 international NGOs operating in Somalia. The Somalia Aid Coordination Body (SACB) was established to coordinate and facilitate information sharing among donor agencies, mostly based in Nairobi, Kenya. FGM/FGC eradication programs andactivities are coordinated through the SACB FGM/FGC Task Force, which meets every month. This assessment is aimed at guiding the World Bank, UNFPA and their partners in current and future anti-FGM/FGC initiatives. Programmatic and policy issues which emerged during the assessment are reflected in the relevant sections of the report. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | PROGRESS REPORT | RECOMMENDATIONS | CASE STUDIES | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | ADOLESCENTS, FEMALE | NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS | FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING | UNFPA | WORLD BANK | INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION | PREVENTION AND CONTROL | COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION | BEST PRACTICES | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Studies | Research Methodology | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Adolescents | Youth | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Organizations | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Harmful Traditional Practices | Traditional Health Practices | Culture | UN | International Agencies | Diseases | Organization and Administration | Programs
Document Number: 320705

29.
Title: Qualitative study of perinatal care experiences among Somali women and local health care professionals in Norway.
Author: Vangen S; Johansen RE; Sundby J; Traeen B; Stray-Pedersen B
Source: European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 2004 Jan 15;112(1):29-35.
Abstract: To explore how perinatal care practice may influence labor outcomes among circumcised women. Study design: In-depth interviews were conducted with 23 Somali immigrants and 36 Norwegian health care professionals about their experiences from antenatal care, delivery and the management of circumcision. Circumcision was not recognized as an important delivery issue among Norwegian health care professionals and generally the topic was not addressed antenatally. The Somalis feared lack of experience and suboptimal treatment at delivery. All of the women expressed a strong fear of cesarean section. Health care professionals were uncertain about delivery procedures for infibulated women and occasionally cesarean sections were performed in place of defibulation. We hypothesize that neglect of circumcision may lead to adverse birth outcomes including unnecessary cesarean sections, prolonged second stage of labor and low Apgar scores. We suggest that infibulated women need a carefully planned delivery, correctly performed defibulation and adequate pain relief. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | NORWAY | QUALITATIVE RESEARCH | INTERVIEWS | WOMEN | IMMIGRANTS | MATERNAL-CHILD HEALTH SERVICES | CESAREAN SECTION | FEAR | PAIN | PREGNANCY OUTCOMES | EDUCATION | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Developed Countries | Europe, Northern | Europe | Research Methodology | Data Collection | Demographic Factors | Population | Migrants | Migration | Population Dynamics | Primary Health Care | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Health | Obstetrical Surgery | Surgery | Treatment | Emotions | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Signs and Symptoms | Diseases | Pregnancy | Reproduction
Document Number: 190096

30.
Title: Rape: invited by a woman?
Source: Women's World. 2003;(37):24.
Abstract: Halimo lived in Mogadishu with her mother in the 1990's when the civil war started. A group of armed rebels came in an armed vehicle to the house and started looting the furniture and other things in the house. Halimo and her mother tried to resist the looting. One of the rebels shot and wounded Halimo's mother, two others took Halimo into the armoured vehicle and drove off with her. At the camp, Halimo was used as sexual slave. The commander declared her his wife and then beat her up and tore her clothes. As a typical Somali girl, Halimo had been circumcised and stitched up to preserve her virginity. The rebel commander ordered for razors to cut her up and make it possible for her to have sex with him. Thereafter, she had sex with many of the rebels and was starved of food. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
SOMALIA | WOMEN | RAPE | WAR | PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS | Africa, Eastern | Africa, Sub Saharan | Africa | Developing Countries | Demographic Factors | Population | Crime | Social Problems | Political Factors | Behavior
Document Number: 275951


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