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Title: Ratio of males to females in China is still high, but only partly because of the one child policy [editorial]
Author: Liu T; Zhang XY
Source: BMJ. 2009;338:b483.
Abstract: China's high ratio of males to females would have persisted if attitudes towards female offspring had not changed. Encouragingly, it seems that the tradition of preferring sons is shifting with the socioeconomic changes that come with urbanisation and industrialisation. For example, more and more young women in the cities claim to prefer a small family, and-more importantly- they have no preference for one sex over the other. Indeed, Zhu and colleagues report a decrease in the male to female ratio for the 2005 cohort, which may indicate the beginning of a reduction in the male to female sex ratio for the future. China can learn much from its neighbouring countries about reversing the worsening sex ratio. Korea was the first country to report very high male to female ratios at birth because of the preference for sons and the widespread use of sex selective technology. In 1992, the male to female ratio for fourth births in South Korea was an astounding 229:100, in sharp contrast to the overall ratio of 114:100. From the mid- 1990s, however, a public awareness campaign warning of the dangers of such distortion, combined with strictly enforced laws forbidding sex selection technology, has led to a decline in the male to female ratio from 116:100 in 1998 to 110:100 in 2004. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | CRITIQUE | EVALUATION | POPULATION | ONE CHILD POLICY | SEX RATIO | AGE FACTORS | ABORTION | SEX PREFERENCE | REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Sex Distribution | Sex Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Fertility Control, Postconception | Family Planning | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Reproduction
Document Number: 331269 Notification

2.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Dreams of tigers and flowers: child gender predictions and preference in an urban mainland Chinese sample during pregnancy.
Author: Loo KK; Luo X; Su H; Presson A; Li Y
Source: Women and Health. 2009 Jan-Feb;49(1):50-65.
Abstract: In an urban, mainland Chinese sample, we investigated expectant mothers' stated gender preference for a boy or girl child, their conjectures on the fetal gender, the culture-specific beliefs for making their predictions, and their relations to sociodemographic variables. A total of 174 women were interviewed at 12-19 weeks gestation. Among 84 women who made a prediction on gender, 56 (67%) thought they were carrying a boy, and 28 (33%) expected a girl. The most frequent reasons cited for their speculation were personal feelings (36%), food/taste preference (13%), feedback from others (13%), somatic responses (13%), and dreams (7%). Out of 63 women who stated a wish for a boy or girl child, 45 (71%) wished for a girl and 18 (29%) wished for a boy. Women with undergraduate or graduate degrees were more likely to indicate a preference for boys. Older expectant mothers were more likely to report that they thought they were carrying boys. In conclusion, the majority of the women did not state a distinct choice for gender of the child. When they expressed a gender preference, more mothers expressed a desire to have a girl. However, boy child conjectures were more frequent than girl child conjectures. Greater boy child preference and prediction among the most highly educated and older expectant mothers might be reflective of implicit social status in having sons in urban China.
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | URBAN POPULATION | PARENTS | CULTURE | PREGNANCY | BELIEFS | FOLKLORE | ONE CHILD POLICY | FAMILY LIFE | SEX PREFERENCE | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Reproduction | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior
Document Number: 341756

Title: China's excess males, sex selective abortion, and one child policy: analysis of data from 2005 national intercensus survey.
Author: Zhu WX; Lu L; Hesketh T
Source: BMJ. 2009;338:b1211.
Abstract: OBJECTIVES: To elucidate current trends and geographical patterns in the sex ratio at birth and in the population aged under 20 in China and to determine the roles played by sex selective abortion and the one child policy. DESIGN: Analysis of household based cross sectional population survey done in November 2005. SETTING: All of China's 2861 counties. Population 1% of the total population, selected to be broadly representative of the total. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Sex ratio defined as males per 100 females. RESULTS: 4 764 512 people under the age of 20 were included. Overall sex ratios were high across all age groups and residency types, but they were highest in the 1-4 years age group, peaking at 126 (95% confidence interval 125 to 126) in rural areas. Six provinces had sex ratios of over 130 in the 1-4 age group. The sex ratio at birth was close to normal for first order births but rose steeply for second order births, especially in rural areas, where it reached 146 (143 to 149). Nine provinces had ratios of over 160 for second order births. The highest sex ratios were seen in provinces that allow rural inhabitants a second child if the first is a girl. Sex selective abortion accounts for almost all the excess males. One particular variant of the one child policy, which allows a second child if the first is a girl, leads to the highest sex ratios. CONCLUSIONS: In 2005 males under the age of 20 exceeded females by more than 32 million in China, and more than 1.1 million excess births of boys occurred. China will see very high and steadily worsening sex ratios in the reproductive age group over the next two decades. Enforcing the existing ban on sex selective abortion could lead to normalisation of the ratios.
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | CROSS SECTIONAL ANALYSIS | HOUSEHOLDS | ONE CHILD POLICY | ABORTION | SEX PREFERENCE | SEX RATIO | HUMAN GEOGRAPHY | AGE FACTORS | POPULATION PROJECTION | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Fertility Control, Postconception | Family Planning | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Sex Distribution | Sex Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Geography | Social Sciences | Science | Estimation Techniques
Document Number: 331270 Notification

Title: Health reform, population policy and child nutritional status in China.
Author: Bredenkamp C
Source: Washington, D.C., World Bank, Human Development Network, Health, Nutrition and Population Department, 2008 Apr. 21 p. (Policy Research Working Paper No. 4587)
Abstract: This paper examines the determinants of child nutritional status in seven provinces of China during the 1990s, focusing specifically on the role of two areas of public policy, namely health system reforms and the one child policy. The empirical relationship between income and nutritional status, and the extent to which that relationship is mediated by access to quality healthcare and being an only-child, is investigated using ordinary least squares, random effects, fixed effects, and instrumental variables models. In the preferred model - a fixed effects model where income is instrumented - the author find that being an only-child increases height-for-age z-scores by 0.119 of a standard deviation. The magnitude of this effect is found to be largely gender and income neutral. By contrast, access to quality healthcare and income is not found to be significantly associated with improved nutritional status in the preferred model. Data are drawn from four waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey.(author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | MATHEMATICAL MODEL | EVALUATION INDEXES | HEALTH SURVEYS | NUTRITION SURVEYS | ONLY CHILD | ONE CHILD POLICY | CHILD NUTRITION | HEALTH POLICY | INCOME | PROGRAM ACCESSIBILITY | DELIVERY OF HEALTH CARE | NUTRITION INDEXES | BODY HEIGHT | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Theoretical Models | Research Methodology | Quantitative Evaluation | Evaluation | Health | Nutrition | Family Size | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Socioeconomic Factors | Economic Factors | Program Evaluation | Programs | Organization and Administration | Physiology | Biology
Document Number: 326307

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Peer Reviewed

Title: Son preference, use of maternal health care, and infant mortality in rural China, 1989 -- 2000.
Author: Chen J; Xie Z; Liu H
Source: Population Studies. 2007 Jul;61(2):161-183.
Abstract: This study assesses the effects of socio-economic conditions and the interaction between son preference and China's one-child family planning policy on the use of maternal health care services and their effects on infant mortality in rural China, using nationally representative data from the 2001 National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Survey. The results show that while the use of maternal health care services has continued to increase over time, large gaps still exist in the use of these services and in infant survival by mother's education, community income, and parity. Further improvements in the reproductive health of all women and in infant survival will require effective reduction of the obstacles to the use of maternal health care among those women in rural China who are less educated, poor, and of higher parity. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | FAMILY PLANNING SURVEYS | WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT | PREGNANT WOMEN | INFANT | RURAL POPULATION | SONS | MATERNAL HEALTH SERVICES | UTILIZATION OF HEALTH CARE | INFANT MORTALITY | SEX PREFERENCE | SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS | ONE CHILD POLICY | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Family Planning | Economic Development | Economic Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Youth | Age Factors | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Maternal-Child Health Services | Primary Health Care | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Health | Mortality | Population Dynamics | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors
Document Number: 317439

Peer Reviewed

Title: China's local and national fertility policies at the end of the twentieth century.
Author: Gu B; Wang F; Guo Z; Zhang E
Source: Population and Development Review. 2007 Mar;33(1):129-147.
Abstract: In this article we survey variations in China's fertility policy as of the late 1990s, in an attempt to describe local policy and the implications of the aggregation of local policies for national policy. Following a brief discussion of the politics of population policymaking in contemporary China, we summarize fertility policy regulations within China's provinces. Our survey illustrates the intricacies and complexities of the population control process in China and serves as a background for our detailed analysis of the policy-stipulated fertility level in China based on local fertility policies. Using data collected on fertility policy for 420 prefecture-level units in China, the administrative level below the province, we estimate fertility levels that would obtain locally if all married couples had births at the levels permitted by local policy. Chinese birth control officials term this fertility level as "policy fertility" (zhengce shengyulu). We compute the average provincial and national policy fertility levels implied by policy fertility at the prefecture level and map the geographic and demographic distributions of policy fertility in China. This policy fertility level is a quantitative summary of China's current fertility policy, informing what is pursued in terms of population control nationally, on the basis of diverse local policies. Policy fertility serves as a reference for evaluating China's fertility policy implementation, and as a starting point in evaluating the necessity and feasibility of continuing China's current fertility policy. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | EVALUATION | POPULATION | POLICYMAKERS | FERTILITY DECLINE | FAMILY PLANNING POLICY | ONE CHILD POLICY | POPULATION CONTROL | POPULATION POLICY | POLITICAL FACTORS | POLICY DEVELOPMENT | ANTINATALIST POLICY | POPULATION DISTRIBUTION | HUMAN GEOGRAPHY | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Administrative Personnel | Organization and Administration | Fertility Changes | Fertility | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Social Policy | Policy | Sociocultural Factors | Family Planning | Planning | Geographic Factors | Geography | Social Sciences | Science
Document Number: 308468

Title: Globalization, policy intervention, and reproduction: below replacement fertility in China.
Author: Gu B; Zheng Z; Wang F; Cai Y
Source: [Unpublished] 2007. Presented at the Population Association of America, 2007 Annual Meeting, New York, New York, March 29-31, 2007. 25 p.
Abstract: We suggest in this paper that China's low fertility not only has profound implications for the demographic future of the world, but also presents an important and unique opportunity to study the underlying forces of emerging global low fertility. The Chinese case is theoretically interesting because of the co-presence of three important forces, two of which are commonly cited as explanations for below replacement fertility. These are structural changes that resulted in economic pressure and constraints imposed on young people, and ideational changes showcased by a more individualistic orientation that places marriage and childbearing at a lower priority than work and self-fulfillment in one's life. Both forces, as we argue in the following, need to be examined under the broad context of the recent wave of globalization. At the forefront of a fledging global economy, and as one of the most dynamic economies in the world in the last two decades, China has clearly felt the impact of globalization andits associated forces affecting human reproduction. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
GLOBAL | CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | FERTILITY SURVEYS | POPULATION | GOVERNMENT | REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR | ONE CHILD POLICY | BELOW REPLACEMENT FERTILITY | FERTILITY PREFERENCES | ECONOMIC FACTORS | VALUE ORIENTATION | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Fertility Measurements | Fertility | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Population Decrease | Psychological Factors | Behavior
Document Number: 317256

Title: Do high birth rates hamper economic growth?
Author: Li H; Zhang J
Source: Review of Economics and Statistics. 2007 Feb;89(1):110-117.
Abstract: This paper examines the impact of the birth rate on economic growth by using a panel data set of 28 provinces in China over twenty years. Because China's one-child policy applied only to the Han Chinese but not to minorities, this unique affirmative policy allows us to use the proportion of minorities in a province as an instrumental variable to identify the causal effect of the birth rate on economic growth. We find that the birth rate has a negative impact on economic growth. The finding not only supports the view of Malthus, but also suggests that China's birth control policy is indeed growth enhancing. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | DATA ANALYSIS | ETHNIC GROUPS | ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT | BIRTH RATE | REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR | ONE CHILD POLICY | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Research Methodology | Cultural Background | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Economic Factors | Fertility Measurements | Fertility | Population Dynamics | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors
Document Number: 318104

10.
Title: Characteristics of induced abortion in China in the 1990s.
Author: Qiao XC
Source: Journal of Reproduction and Contraception. 2007 Jun;18(2):93-101.
Abstract: The objective was to understand the characteristics of induced abortion in China in the 1990s, and to find out the influential factors. The overall number of induced abortions, calculate cohort induced abortion frequency, explore the impact of a child's sex and the number of previous children on induced abortions were estimated by using the data from the "National Population and Reproductive Health Survey" conducted by the National Family Planning Commission in November 1997. Induced abortions in China had their own characteristics, which were far different from other countries. The main difference was led by the fact that the country was driven by an implemented family planning program and nationwide population policies. The key cause of induced abortions was due to an inconsistency with the requirements of the family planning policy. However, as a result of effective and prevalent contraception, the rates of induced abortions were not quite high in the 1990s, when compared with other countries. Even though, in the early 1990s, the government had reinforced the family planning program through administration and legislation, unlike during the early 1980s when the one-child policy was implemented, the induced abortion rate and the number of induce abortions did not increase as the fertility rate substantially decreased. This finding implies that the fertility declines in the 1990s were not caused by the number of induced abortions. The transition of the fertility ideology of the people has played an important role in the fertility decline, as institutional reform and socioeconomic development are implemented. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | SURVEYS | PREGNANT WOMEN | AGE DISTRIBUTION | ABORTION | ABORTION RATE | SEX FACTORS | ONE CHILD POLICY | FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMS | FERTILITY DECLINE | SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Age Factors | Fertility Control, Postconception | Family Planning | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Fertility Changes | Fertility | Population Dynamics | Economic Factors
Document Number: 308495 Notification

11.

Peer Reviewed

Title: China's one-child policy and overweight children in the 1990s.
Author: Yang J
Source: Social Science and Medicine. 2007 May;64(10):2043-2057.
Abstract: The prevalence of overweight children in China has increased, and the one-child policy has been suggested as a cause. Drawing on longitudinal data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, this paper investigates the relationship between the one-child policy and overweight among young children. The policy is measured directly as local variations and indirectly as sibship composition (i.e., number of siblings, birth order and birth interval). Results suggest that overweight among preschoolers and primary school children increased in the 1990s at a slower pace than that documented in previous studies in China, and the prevalence of overweight varies by age of children and urban residence. However, while there are substantially gross differences in overweight by policy variations and sibsize (i.e., number of siblings), single children and those in strict one-child policy communities do not differ from other children, after adjusting for household and community characteristics. Thus, the policy doesnot seem to bear an independent relationship to child overweight risk. Hence, this analysis provides little to support the public perception that the one-child policy is associated with the rising epidemic of child overweight in transitional China. Rather the risk associated with overweight include age of children, parental body mass index (BMI), level of maternal education, local socioeconomic development, urban residence and province/region. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | SURVEYS | LONGITUDINAL STUDIES | CHILD | ONE CHILD POLICY | OBESITY | PREVALENCE | RISK FACTORS | AGE FACTORS | EDUCATION | SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Youth | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Body Weight | Physiology | Biology | Measurement | Economic Factors
Document Number: 313405

12.

Title: From resisting to "embracing?" the one-child rule: Understanding new fertility trends in a central China village.
Author: Zhang H
Source: China Quarterly. 2007;192:855-875.
Abstract: From its initiation in 1979, China's one-child policy has been controversial. Most critiques on the stringent birth control policy in rural China still focus on the resistance framework and there is very little research on whether Chinese peasant families are changing their fertility preferences and behaviors when confronting both the state birth control policy and the rapidly changing social and economic environment. Based on recent ethnographic study in a central China village, this article seeks to explore new fertility trends that indicate the shift from "active resistance against" to "conscious decision for" the one-child limit among rural families. In particular, it discusses the newly emerging social, economic, and demographic factors that may have played a role in this fertility shift, and its social implications for the central tenet of son preference in Chinese culture and the norm of child-rearing as a means of securing old age support among rural families. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | RURAL AREAS | SONS | FERTILITY RATE | DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION | ONE CHILD POLICY | DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS | SEX PREFERENCE | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Geographic Factors | Population | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Birth Rate | Fertility Measurements | Fertility | Population Dynamics | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior
Document Number: 325521

13.

14.

Peer Reviewed

Title: Family size, fertility preferences, and sex ratio in China in the era of the one child family policy: results from national family planning and reproductive health survey.
Author: Ding QJ; Hesketh T
Source: BMJ. British Medical Journal. 2006 Aug 19;333(7564):371-373.
Abstract: The objectives were to examine the impact of the one child family policy in China on fertility, preferred family size, and sex ratio. Secondary analysis of data from the Chinese cross sectional national family planning and reproductive health survey, 2001. Interviews of representative sample of women aged 15-49. Data were obtained from 39 585 women, with a total of 73 202 pregnancies and 56 830 live births. The average fertility rate in women over 35 (n = 17 078) was 1.94 (2.1 in rural areas and 1.4 in urban areas) and for women under 35 (n = 11 543) 1.73 (1.25 and 1.79). Smaller families were associated with younger age, higher level of education, and living in an urban area. The male to female ratio was 1.15 and rose from 1.11 in 1980-9 to 1.23 for 1996-2001. Most women wanted small families: 35% preferred one child and 57% preferred two. Since the one child family policy began, the total birth rate and preferred family size have decreased, and a gross imbalance in the sex ratio has emerged. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | DATA ANALYSIS | CROSS SECTIONAL ANALYSIS | ONE CHILD POLICY | FAMILY SIZE | SEX RATIO | SEX PREFERENCE | BIRTH RATE | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sex Distribution | Sex Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Fertility Measurements | Fertility | Population Dynamics
Document Number: 304445

15.

Title: Marriage squeeze in China: Historical legacies, surprising findings.
Author: Goodkind D
Source: [Unpublished] 2006. Presented at the Population Association of America, 2006 Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, California, March 30 - April 1, 2006. [30] p.
Abstract: Since the late 1980s, the proliferation of prenatal sex testing in China has led increasingly to selective abortion of female fetuses. Yet these sex-distorted birth cohorts are still too young to marry. In 2000, a notable shortage of brides at peak marital ages was due to age structure - grooms tend to be older than brides, and the age structure at 20-29 resembled an inverse pyramid. By 2010, a temporary shift to a traditional pyramid should lead to a slight shortage of husbands. From 2015 to 2025, the cohorts affected by prenatal sex selection are projected to experience a severe deficit of brides, yet that deficit should still be due primarily to age structure. The accordion-like fluctuations in China's age structure result not only from fertility decline following the population policies established in the 1970s - they can also be traced back to the Great Leap Forward (1958-1961). (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | CONFERENCES AND CONGRESSES | RESEARCH REPORT | COHORT ANALYSIS | POPULATION | MARRIAGE PATTERNS | SEX DETERMINATION | ABORTION | SEX RATIO | AGE DISTRIBUTION CHANGES | MARRIAGE AGE | ONE CHILD POLICY | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Marriage | Nuptiality | Demographic Factors | Genetic Techniques | Laboratory Examinations and Diagnoses | Examinations and Diagnoses | Medical Procedures | Medicine | Health Services | Delivery of Health Care | Health | Fertility Control, Postconception | Family Planning | Sex Distribution | Sex Factors | Population Characteristics | Age Distribution | Age Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors
Document Number: 317411 Notification

16.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Quality of care in China: scaling up a pilot project into a national reform program.
Author: Kaufman J; Zhang E; Xie Z
Source: Studies in Family Planning. 2006 Mar;37(1):17-28.
Abstract: China's family planning program ranks as history's most intensive effort to control national population growth. Although advocates for global population control have lauded China's effort to limit births as a fundamental part of its sustainable development goals, the country's population policy has also generated much international criticism. As China enters the new millennium, a long-overdue reform of its approach to implementing its family planning program has begun to refocus the program on clients' needs, informed choice of contraceptives, and better-quality services. Originally inspired by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo, the reform program began as a pilot project among six counties and has now become a blueprint for reorienting the national family planning program. This article reviews the process by which a small, innovative pilot project was scaled up into a national reform effort and the key lessons learned about scaling up sensitive but necessary innovation in a difficult political environment. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | LITERATURE REVIEW | PILOT PROJECTS | POPULATION | ONE CHILD POLICY | FAMILY PLANNING | POPULATION POLICY | CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS | QUALITY OF HEALTH CARE | POLITICAL FACTORS | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Studies | Research Methodology | Antinatalist Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Sociocultural Factors | Contraception | Health Services Evaluation | Program Evaluation | Programs | Organization and Administration
Document Number: 298805

17.

Title: China's one child policy. The policy that changed the world [editorial]
Author: Potts M
Source: BMJ. British Medical Journal. 2006 Aug 19;333(7564):361-362.
Abstract: The Chinese one child policy is unique in the history of the world. It was a source of great pain for one generation, but a generation later it began to yield important economic benefits. For China, and the world as a whole, the one child policy was one of the most important social policies ever implemented. Rapid population growth is an unforgiving task master. Even with the one child policy--as a result of the high birth rate a generation before--China still has one million more births than deaths every five weeks. The Chinese State Council launched the policy in 1979, "so the rate of population growth may be brought under control as soon as possible." However, the root cause of the policy lay back in the 1960s with Mao Zedong's belief that "the more people, the stronger we are"--an ideology that prevented China from developing the highly successful voluntary family planning programmes that countries such as South Korea and Taiwan had put in place in the 1960s. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | LITERATURE REVIEW | ONE CHILD POLICY | POPULATION GROWTH | ECONOMIC FACTORS | FAMILY PLANNING | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Population Dynamics | Demographic Factors | Population
Document Number: 304441

18.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Demographic dimensions of China's development.
Author: Vermeer EB
Source: Population and Development Review. 2006;32 Suppl:115-144.
Abstract: Present policies have singled out China's roughly 140 million mostly rural-to-urban migrants (in 2005) as a major social problem, whether in the enforcement of birth control, in guaranteeing their children's access to education and health care, or in social discrimination and crime. Solutions are largely in the hands of municipal governments. Many migrants are ruthlessly exploited and work and live under appalling conditions, which they accept for the time being. But local governments provide little support. They have swung away from socialism and collectivism, which for three decades failed to provide income growth and individual freedom. Central government protection against the negative effects of the free market and capitalism extends only to the unemployed in the formal urban workforce and the most disadvantaged regions. Although it is widely agreed that "market socialism" is just a slogan, few care about ideological correctness or economic orthodoxy as long as China's economy continues to perform extremely well. The trickle-down effect has worked, even if not for everyone, and the Chinese remain proud of their socioeconomic achievements and optimistic about the future. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | CRITIQUE | POPULATION | DEMOGRAPHY | ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT | FERTILITY DECLINE | POPULATION DYNAMICS | SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS | ONE CHILD POLICY | MARRIAGE PATTERNS | SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS | POPULATION FORECAST | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Social Sciences | Science | Economic Factors | Fertility Changes | Fertility | Demographic Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Marriage | Nuptiality | Estimation Techniques | Research Methodology
Document Number: 305202

19.

Title: Has the one-child policy improved adolescents' educational wellbeing in China?
Author: Yang J
Source: [Unpublished] 2006. Presented at the Population Association of America, 2006 Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, California, March 30 - April 1, 2006. [38] p.
Abstract: One of the purposes of China's one-child policy is to improve child well-being. However, past studies overwhelmingly focus on policy effect on fertility, and thus, whether the policy has achieved this goal remains unclear. This paper explores the relationship between the one-child policy and educational well-being (measured as school enrollment and grade completion) among adolescent children in the 1990s, using CHNS data (1993-2000). Drawing on local variations in policy strength and sibship composition, I find a consistent, strong advantage of single children in school enrollment and grade completion relative to those with an older brother or 2+ siblings among children beyond compulsory education, regardless of residence and child gender. The quality of children decreases with quantity, particularly with the presence of an older brother. The results provide evidence to support the idea that restricting family size (but not necessarily one child per couple) and promoting sibling equality will necessarily help increase adolescents' educational well-being in developing settings. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | HEALTH SURVEYS | ADOLESCENTS | SIBLINGS | ONE CHILD POLICY | EDUCATIONAL STATUS | SCHOOL ENROLLMENT | FAMILY SIZE | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Health | Youth | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Socioeconomic Status | Socioeconomic Factors | Economic Factors
Document Number: 317417

20.
Title: Child adoption in contemporary rural China.
Author: Zhang W
Source: Journal of Family Issues. 2006 Mar;27(3):301-340.
Abstract: Based on qualitative information from in-depth interviews and quantitative data from a survey of 425 adoptive families conducted in summer 2001 in rural China, this study attempts to explain the social and demographic patterns of adoption and investigate the roles of the State and families in adoption processes in contemporary rural China. Within the changing context of the new political economy, culture, and social conditions brought about by market reforms (1978) and the "one-child" policy (1979), this study shows that adoption is now increasingly used as a strategy for the childless as well as reproductive couples to reach ideal family size and particularly ideal sex composition of children. Moreover, Chinese families are willing to adopt girls, though strong son preference persists. Overall, it appears that individual adoptions of children in rural China follow increasingly individual desires rather than State directives. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH | CHILD | RURAL AREAS | ADOPTION | ONE CHILD POLICY | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Research Methodology | Youth | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Geographic Factors | Child Rearing | Behavior | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors
Document Number: 309145

21.

Title: Chinese population challenges: fewer girls, more old people.
Author: Attane I
Source: Population and Societies. 2005 Oct;(416):1-4.
Abstract: Though the population of China has almost doubled since the 1960s and now exceeds 1.3 billion, it is no longer perceived as a threat. China has undergone profound demographic upheaval over the last forty years and its turbulent history is reflected in a population pyramid that illustrates the new challenges facing the country: the prospect of an ageing population and a shortage of young girls. With 1.3 billion inhabitants in 2005, China is the world's most populous country, though its share of the total world population is shrinking: 22% in 1950, compared with 20% today. Likewise, one-third of all inhabitants of the least developed countries were Chinese in 1950, compared with only one-quarter today. Demographers are even predicting that the population of China will be overtaken by that of India within the next 25 to 30 years. To understand the reasons for this relative decline, we need to look at the demographic history of China over the last fifty years. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS | POPULATION | DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION | POPULATION DYNAMICS | SEX PREFERENCE | SONS | ONE CHILD POLICY | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Research Methodology | Demographic Factors | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors
Document Number: 312240

22.
Title: Missing girls, land and population controls in rural China.
Author: Bossen L
Source: [Unpublished] 2005. Presented at the CEPED-CICRED-INED Seminar on Female Deficit in Asia: Trends and Perspectives, Singapore, December 5-7, 2005. 21 p.
Abstract: My aim is to consider the links between property rights and population control to see how these two policies work together to produce the enormous deficit of daughters. Who exercises de facto control over land and property? Despite government efforts to legislate gender equality, patrilineal institutions retain considerable power in many rural areas. Their workings within the village power structures need to be made more visible. The close ties to women's natal families that Banister advocates would be stronger if daughters were in line for a share of the family house and land. Although China has a long history of practicing female infanticide, in the post-revolutionary period the missing girls problem arises simultaneously with increased wealth. The sex imbalance can be seen as a product of development and a problem for development. As with environmental degradation, social institutions can propel societies to follow a pattern of maximizing immediate advantage that can have negative consequences for the future. Targeting girls as a lesser good harms women throughout their lives, and creates a cohort of males assured of their superiority, yet unable to find wives and form families. In a variant of the law of unintended consequences, the rootedness of the male population as the basis for son preference ends up creating a class of rootless males. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RURAL AREAS | RESEARCH REPORT | QUALITATIVE RESEARCH | CHILD, FEMALE | PARENTS | DEVELOPMENT POLICY | LAND TENURE | ONE CHILD POLICY | SEX PREFERENCE | SONS | PATRIARCHY | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Geographic Factors | Population | Research Methodology | Child | Youth | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Sociocultural Factors | Policy | Political Factors | Socioeconomic Factors | Economic Factors | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior
Document Number: 314751

23.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Doctors' group proposes one-child policy for India.
Author: Chatterjee P
Source: Lancet. 2005 May 7;365:1609.
Abstract: India�s soaring population�which the UN Population Fund estimates will overtake China�s before 2030�will push the country into a state of �total anarchy� unless a one-child policy is implemented, Indian Medical Association (IMA) president Sudipto Roy has claimed. These remarks put the spotlight on a prickly issue for India, which pursued a policy of coercive population control, including forced sterilisation, during the Emergency era of 1975�76. Roy�s controversial call for a one-child limit has been accompanied by a heated debate over whether the statement was a formal policy endorsement by the IMA, or the personal view of some members. �Several IMA members had recently gone to China. They were very impressed by China�s achievements in slowing population growth, and expressed deep concern about our population explosion. They felt only strict measures would curb the population boom in India�, Roy explained to The Lancet. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
INDIA | ONE CHILD POLICY | POPULATION PRESSURE | POPULATION CONTROL | Developing Countries | Asia, Southern | Asia | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Carrying Capacity | Natural Resources | Environment
Document Number: 286469

24.
Peer Reviewed

Title: The effect of China's one-child family policy after 25 years.
Author: Hesketh T; Lu L; Xing ZW
Source: New England Journal of Medicine. 2005 Sep 15;353(11):1171-1176.
Abstract: China�s one-child family policy has had a great effect on the lives of nearly a quarter of the world�s population for a quarter of a century. When the policy was introduced in 1979, the Chinese government claimed that it was a short-term measure and that the goal was to move toward a voluntary small-family culture. In this article, we examine to what extent this goal has been achieved and the implications for the future of the policy. First we explain why the policy was introduced and how it is now implemented. We also examine the consequences of the policy in regard to population growth, the ratio between men and women, and the ratio between adult children and dependent elderly parents. Finally, we examine the relevance of the policy in contemporary China and whether the time has come for the policy to be relaxed. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | HISTORICAL REVIEW | CRITIQUE | FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD | ONE CHILD POLICY | SEX RATIO | POPULATION GROWTH | DEPENDENCY BURDEN | DEMOGRAPHIC AGING | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Sex Distribution | Sex Factors | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Population Dynamics | Microeconomic Factors | Economic Factors
Document Number: 290963

25.
Peer Reviewed

Title: China's infamous one-child policy.
Author: King M
Source: Lancet. 2005 Jan 15;365:215-216.
Abstract: Your Sept 11 Editorial (p 909) refers to China's "infamous one-child policy", without acknowledging that without it conditions of life for the country's 1-3 billion people would have been much worse. In theory, one-child families should only be necessary in certain circumstances. These are: (a) that a community has outgrown the carrying capacity of its ecosystem or is about to do so, and (b) that there is nowhere for people to migrate to, and (c) that a country has too few exports to exchange for food and other essentials. Known as demographic entrapment, these circumstances invariably result in severe poverty, starvation, and violence; the only response is for a community to limit its fertility radically. As such, China's one-child policy saved 200-400 million people, and was the only rational solution to what the country perceived as its "grain problem" in the face of its rapidly increasing population. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | AFRICA, SUB SAHARAN | CRITIQUE | EVALUATION | DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS | FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD | ONE CHILD POLICY | MACROECONOMIC FACTORS | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Africa | Research Methodology | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Economic Factors
Document Number: 277006

26.
Title: A Chinese-style one-child policy for India [letter]
Author: Li J
Source: Lancet. 2005 Jul 9;366(9480):121.
Abstract: In response to Patralekha Chatterjee's World Report it is important to note that China's one-child policy does not apply to all of its regions and ethnic groups. Couples in poor rural regions are permitted to have two children, and national minority groups of a small population size have no birth restrictions. Even so, China's achievement of rapid fertility declines has incurred high social, demographic, and health costs. North and Central India share one main feature of the patrilineal family system found in rural China (where 75% of the population resides), namely son preference. Son preference in such family systems implies that at least one son is wanted to continue the patrilineal family line and to perform religious, social, economic, and reproductive functions for the family. This imperative poses a formidable challenge to population policies that impose birth restrictions on rural families, as occurred in rural China. India's sex imbalances are already very high. A forced family planning programme would further exacerbate them. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
INDIA | CHINA | CRITIQUE | CHILDREN | ONE CHILD POLICY | SEX PREFERENCE | SONS | WOMEN'S STATUS | INEQUALITIES | DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS | CHILD SURVIVAL | FERTILITY DECLINE | Asia, Southern | Asia | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Youth | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Population | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Political Factors | Sociocultural Factors | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Socioeconomic Factors | Economic Factors | Survivorship | Length of Life | Mortality | Population Dynamics | Fertility Changes | Fertility
Document Number: 280822

27.
Title: The coming-of-age of China's single-child policy.
Author: McLoughlin CS
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2005;42(3):305-313.
Abstract: China�s one-child policy is now 25 years of age--the officially sanctioned age for marriage by men in the People�s Republic of China. A significant proportion of those now about to enter their child-bearing years are themselves the product of the first generation of one-child homes. This article reviews the history of the single-child policy, with specific regard to the forces that initiated it as a national imperative and which today appear to sustain its widespread acceptance by the Chinese peoples. This article considers the circumstances leading to the implementation of the single-child policy, the development of incentives for compliance and penalties for noncompliance, information reflecting representative data-based analyses of outcomes from the policy, and the present situation and scenarios that might lead to a revisitation of this policy. Impressions and data gathering were conducted through conversation with individuals from all social strata in six locales in the People�s Republic of China and were contrasted with similar exploratory visits from 10 and 15 years ago. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | HISTORICAL REVIEW | POPULATION | GOVERNMENT | ONE CHILD POLICY | POPULATION CONTROL | ECONOMIC FACTORS | SEX PREFERENCE | SONS | INEQUALITIES | POLITICAL FACTORS | PUBLIC OPINION | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Value Orientation | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Family Relationships | Family Characteristics | Family and Household | Socioeconomic Factors | Attitudes
Document Number: 291653

28.
Title: The coming-of-age of China's single-child policy.
Author: McLougiilin CS
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2005;42(3):305-313.
Abstract: China's one-child policy is now 25 years of age--the officially sanctioned age for marriage by men in the People's Republic of China. A significant proportion of those now about to enter their child-bearing years are themselves the product of the first generation of one-child homes. This article reviews the history of the single-child policy, with specific regard to the forces that initiated it as a national imperative and which today appear to sustain its widespread acceptance by the Chinese peoples. This article considers the circumstances leading to the implementation of the single-child policy, the development of incentives for compliance and penalties for non-compliance, information reflecting representative data-based analyses of outcomes from the policy, and the present situation and scenarios that might lead to a revisitation of this policy. Impressions and data gathering were conducted through conversation with individuals from all social strata in six locales in the People's Republic of China and were contrasted with similar exploratory visits from 10 and 15 years ago. (author's)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | SUMMARY REPORT | POPULATION POLICY | ONE CHILD POLICY | IMPLEMENTATION | IMPACT | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Social Policy | Policy | Antinatalist Policy | Programs | Organization and Administration | Communication
Document Number: 284201

29.
Peer Reviewed

Title: The one-child policy in Shanghai: acceptance and internalization.
Author: Nie Y; Wyman RJ
Source: Population and Development Review. 2005 Jun;31(2):313-336.
Abstract: After the communist revolution, the population of the People�s Republic of China grew rapidly, increasing by 80 percent between 1950 and 1980 (United Nations 2005). Partly this increase was due to improved social and economic conditions that greatly reduced mortality. Early in the period the Party�s pronatalist exhortations reflected an anti-Malthusian ideology. In the mid-1950s, China�s total fertility rate exceeded 6 children per woman. Although the fertility rate had fallen to less than half that level by the late 1970s, in 1979�80 China introduced its one-child birth planning policy to reduce the country�s rapid population growth. A well-publicized Chinese projection at the time argued that, if the fertility rate stayed at 3, China�s population would be 4.26 billion in 2080, �almost equal to the total [1980] population of the entire world.� he stringent restrictions and coercion associated with the one-child policy aroused international controversy. Some observers viewed it with dismay and disapproval. To this day the policy remains a key impediment to US government contributions to the United Nations Population Fund (US Department of State 2002, 2004). Given the demographic, human rights, and political significance of the policy, it is important to ascertain the attitudes of Chinese citizens to the policy. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | RESEARCH REPORT | KAP SURVEYS | FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD | COUPLES | YOUTH | ONE CHILD POLICY | PUBLIC OPINION | POLITICAL FACTORS | DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS | GENDER ISSUES | HOME ECONOMICS | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Developing Countries | Surveys | Sampling Studies | Studies | Research Methodology | Family Characteristics | Age Factors | Population Characteristics | Population | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Attitudes | Psychological Factors | Behavior | Microeconomic Factors | Economic Factors
Document Number: 288348

30.
Peer Reviewed

Title: Gender gap.
Author: Stephenson J
Source: JAMA. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2005 Apr 20;293(15):1848.
Abstract: In an effort to curb selective abortion of female fetuses, Chinese lawmakers are considering passing legislation that would impose harsher punishments on physicians who determine or reveal the sex of a fetus or conduct abortions for nonmedical purposes, according to reports in the Chinese media. Currently, physicians face only fines and administrative penalties for the practice. In China, where parents traditionally prefer sons to daughters, a government policy limiting most parents to having one child has driven many couples to seek ultrasound scans to learn the sex of the fetus and an abortion if the fetus is found to be female. The practice has contributed to a marked gap in the birth sex ratio in China, where 117 boys are born for every 100 girls. (excerpt)
Language: English
Keywords:
CHINA | SUMMARY REPORT | POLICYMAKERS | CULTURAL BACKGROUND | SEX FACTORS | ONE CHILD POLICY | ABORTION | LEGISLATION | ABORTION LAW | SEX RATIO | Developing Countries | Asia, Eastern | Asia | Administrative Personnel | Organization and Administration | Population Characteristics | Demographic Factors | Population | Antinatalist Policy | Population Policy | Social Policy | Policy | Fertility Control, Postconception | Family Planning | Sex Distribution
Document Number: 286048 Notification


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